I presume that there is a personal exemption for exhaling carbon dioxide. Otherwise, they might as well do a head tax.

Recalls will differ in non-smog-test states as opposed to smog-test states.
But they will certainly occur.
My advice is for owners to quickly SELL VW diesels into non-smog-test states where they may be allowed to live out their gross polluting lives and keep some resale value.
California will not allow it.

VW down 16% this morning in Euro trading.

My guess is that there will be a class action lawsuit against VW to compensate owners. Get in line and see if there is any money left after the EPA fines them billions.

lol that is so poignantly true